Chapter 21The end of an age Social and economic improvements Between 1875 and 1914 the condition of the poor in most of Britain greatly improved as prices fell by 40 per cent and real wages doubled. Life at home was made more comfortable. Most homes now had gas both for heating and lighting. As a result of falling prices and increased wages, poor families could eat better food, including meat, fresh milk (brought from the countryside by train) and vegetables. This greatly improved the old diet of white bread and beer. In 1870 and 1891 two Education Acts were passed. As a result of these, all children had to go to school up to the age of thirteen, where they were taught reading, writing and arithmetic. In Scotland there had been a state education system since the time of the Reformation. There were four Scottish universities, three dating from the Middle Ages. In Wales schools had begun to grow rapidly in the middle of the century, partly for nationalist reasons. By the middle of the century Wales had a university and a smaller university college. England now started to build "redbrick" universities in the new industrial cities. The term "redbrick" distinguished the new universities, often brick-built, from the older, mainly stone-built universities of Oxford and Cambridge. These new universities were unlike Oxford and Cambridge, and taught more science and technology to feed Britain's industries. 92 The authority of the Church was weakened. In the country, the village priest no longer had the power he had had a century earlier. Churches were now half empty, because so many people had gone to live in the towns, where they stopped going to church. By 1900 only 19 per cent of Londoners went regularly to church. By the 1880s, for the first time, working people could think about enjoying some free time. Apart from museums, parks, swimming pools and libraries recently opened in towns, the real popular social centre remained the alehouse or pub. Thousands of these were built in the new suburbs. From the middle of the century many people had started to use the railway to get to work. Now they began to travel for pleasure. The working class went to the new seaside holiday towns. The middle class enjoyed the countryside, or smaller seaside resorts of a more expensive kind. But for both, the seaside was a place where families could take holidays together. The invention of the bicycle was also important. For the first time people could cycle into the countryside, up to fifty miles from home. It gave a new freedom to working-class and middle-class people, who met each other for the first time away from work. More importantly, it gave young women their first taste of freedom. Up till then they had always had an older woman as a companion to make sure that nothing "happened" when they met men. Now these young women had a means of escape, and escape they did. The importance of sport By the end of the nineteenth century, two sports, cricket and football, had become of great interest to the British public. Cricket, which had started as a "gentleman's" sport, had become an extremely popular village game. Although it had first developed in the eighteenth century, it was not until a century later that its rules were organised. From 1873 a county championship took place each year. Cricket was a game which encouraged both individual and team excellence and taught respect for fair play. As one Englishman said at the time, "We have a much greater love of cricket than of politics." Cricket was successfully exported to the empire: to the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Australia and New Zealand. But while it was popular in Wales, it never had the same popularity in Scotland. Britain's other main game, football, was also organised with proper rules in the nineteenth century. As an organised game it was at first a middle-class or gentleman's sport, but it quickly became popular among all classes. Football soon drew huge crowds who came to watch the full-time professional footballers play the game. By the end of the nineteenth century almost every town between Portsmouth on the south coast of England and Aberdeen in northeast Scotland had its own football, or "soccer" team. Changes in thinking 93 The most important idea of the nineteenth century was that everyone had the right to personal freedom, which was the basis of capitalism. This idea had spread widely through the book Enquiry into the Wealth of Nations, written by the Scotsman Adam Smith in the eighteenth century. After Adam Smith, several capitalist economists argued that government should not interfere in trade and industry at all. Fewer laws, they claimed, meant more freedom, and freedom for individuals would lead to happiness for the greatest number of people. These ideas were eagerly accepted by the growing middle class. However, it soon became very clear that the freedom of factory owners to do as they pleased had led to slavery and misery for the poor, not to happiness or freedom. By 1820 more and more people had begun to accept the idea that government must interfere to protect the poor and the weak. The result was a number of laws to improve working conditions. One of these, in 1833, limited the number of hours that women and children were allowed to work. Another law the same year abolished slavery throughout the British Empire. As so often happens, government policy was influenced by individual people. At the beginning of the century Robert Owen, a factory owner in Scotland, gave his workers shorter working hours. He built his factory in the countryside, away from the fog and dirt of the cities, and provided good housing nearby, and education for the workers' children. Owen was able to prove that his workers produced more in less time than those forced to work long hours. Owen also encouraged trade unions. Owen's ideas and example began to spread. Other reformers, like the Quaker, Arthur Cadbury, famous for his Birmingham chocolate factory, built first-class housing for their workers. 94 Most of the poorer classes lived in unhealthy conditions in small, damp "back-to-back" houses, with few open spaces. As the middle classes moved out to better suburbs, parts of the city centres became areas of poverty, like this street in Newcastle in 1880. Literature was influenced by the new mood of change. In the middle of the century Charles Dickens attacked the rich and powerful for their cruelty towards the weak and unfortunate in society. Painting too was affected. A century earlier it had been the great landowning aristocracy who had bought paintings and paid artists. In the nineteenth century it was the mainly urban middle class, and to please them, artists painted different subjects, such as sentimental scenes of the countryside, and paintings which told a moral story. But some painted industrial scenes which raised questions about the new society Britain had created. Above all, Victorian society was self-confident. This had been shown in the Great Exhibition in 1851. British self-confidence was built not only upon power but also upon the rapid scientific advances being made at the time. In 1857 Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species. His theory of evolution, based upon scientific observation, was welcomed by many as proof of mankind's ability to find a scientific explanation for everything. But for churchgoing people, who were mostly to be found among the middle classes, the idea that all animals, including human beings, had developed from more simple creatures shook this self-confidence and led to a crisis in the Church. Most of the churchgoing population believed every word of the Bible. They found it difficult to accept Darwin's theory that the world had developed over millions of years, and had not been created in six days. The end of "England's summer" At the beginning of the twentieth century people did not, of course, realise that they were living at the end of an age. There was still a general belief in the "liberal idea", that the nation could achieve steady economic and social improvement as well as democracy without revolution. Things for Britain could only get better and better. In 1909 Labour Exchanges were opened, where those without work could look for jobs. Two years later all working people were made to pay for "national insurance". It was another new idea that those unable to earn money through sickness or unemployment would be helped by the state. The New Liberals had begun to establish what became the "welfare state". By doing so, they made important changes to the free capitalism of the nineteenth century. Government, said the Liberals, had a duty to protect the weak against the strong. In 1911 another important political event occurred. The battle of wills between the two Houses produced a crisis when the Liberals tried to introduce a new budget in 1909 which was intended to increase the taxes paid by the rich, particularly the large landowners. The Lords turned down the new budget. The new king, George V, put an end to the crisis by warning that he would create enough new Liberal lords to give the Liberals a majority. The Lords gave in. One result of the dispute was that taxation was increasingly seen as a social matter as well as an economic one. 95 In the same year, for the first time, the Commons agreed that MPs should be paid. This was a far more important step than it might seem, for it meant that men of low income could now become MPs. In 1906 a new "Labour" party had managed to get twenty-nine representatives elected to Parliament. It was clear to even the most conservative-minded that socialists should work inside the parliamentary system rather than outside it. The dangers of political evolution were far less than those of revolution. The storm clouds of war By the end of the century it had become clear that Britain was no longer as powerful as it had been. Why did Britain lose the advantages it had over other countries at the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851? There seem to be a number of reasons. Other countries, Germany particularly, had greater natural wealth, including coal and iron, and wheatproducing lands. Most British people invested their money abroad rather than in building up home industry. Public schools, the private system of education for the richer middle class, did not encourage business or scientific studies. Britain had nothing to compare with the scientific and technical education of Germany. Finally, the working class, used to low pay for long hours, did not feel they were partners in manufacture. Suddenly Britain realised that it no longer ruled the seas quite so assuredly, and that others had more powerful armies and more powerful industries. As a result of the growth of international trade Britain was less self-sufficient, and as a result of growing US and German competition started to trade more with the less developed and less competitive world. The danger of war with Germany had been clear from the beginning of the century, and it was this which had brought France and Britain together. Britain was particularly frightened of Germany's modern navy, which seemed a good deal stronger than its own. The government started a programme of building battleships to make sure of its strength at sea. The reason was simple. Britain could not possibly survive for long without food and other essential goods reaching it by sea. From 1908 onwards Britain spent large sums of money to make sure that it possessed a stronger fleet than Germany. Britain's army was small, but its size seemed less important than its quality. In any case, no one believed that war in Europe, if it happened, would last more than six months. In July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on its neighbour Serbia following the murder of a senior Austrian Archduke in Sarajevo. Because Russia had promised to defend Serbia, it declared war on Austria-Hungary. Because of Germany's promise to stand by Austria-Hungary, Russia also found itself at war with Germany. France, Russia's ally, immediately made its troops ready, recognising that the events in Serbia would lead inevitably to war with Germany. Britain still hoped that it would not be dragged into war. In August 1914 Germany's attack on France took its army through Belgium. Britain immediately declared war because it had promised to guarantee Belgium's 96 neutrality by the treaty of 1838. But Britain went to war also because it feared that Germany's ambitions, like Napoleon's over a century earlier, would completely change the map of Europe. 97 The twentieth century |
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